History of North America
In the classification of , the Woodland period of n cultures spanned a period from roughly 1000 to European contact in the eastern part of North America, with some archaeologists distinguishing the Mississippian period, from 1000 CE to European contact as a separate period. The term "Woodland Period" was introduced in the 1930s as a generic term for falling between the s and the agriculturalist s. The Eastern Woodlands cultural region covers what is now eastern Canada south of the region, the , along to the . This period is variously considered a developmental stage, a time period, a suite of technological adaptations or "traits", and a "family tree" of cultures related to earlier Archaic cultures. It can be characterized as a chronological and cultural manifestation without any massive changes in a short time but instead having a continuous development in and s, , , , and shelter construction. Many Woodland peoples used s and s until the end of the period, when they were replaced by ; however, Southeastern Woodland peoples also used s. The most cited technological distinction of this period was the widespread use of (although pottery manufacture had arisen during the Archaic period in some places), and the diversification of pottery forms, decorations, and manufacturing practices. The increasing use of horticulture and the development of the , consisting of weedy seed plants as well as gourd cultivation, also meant that groups became less mobile over time and, in some times and places, people lived in permanently occupied villages and cities. Intensive agriculture characterizes the Mississippian period from c. 1000–1400 CE and may have continued up to European contact, around 500 years ago. Early Woodland period (1000–200 BCE) The Early Woodland period continued many trends begun during the Late and Terminal Archaic periods, including extensive mound-building, regional distinctive burial complexes, the trade of exotic goods across a large area of North America as part of interaction spheres, the reliance on both wild and domesticated plant foods, and a mobile subsistence strategy in which small groups took advantage of seasonally available resources such as nuts, fish, shellfish, and wild plants. Pottery, which had been manufactured during the Archaic period in limited amounts, was now widespread across the Eastern Interior, the Southeast, and the Northeast; the Far Northeast, the Sub-Arctic, and the Northwest/Plains regions widely adopted pottery somewhat later, about 200 BCE. Interaction The built conical mounds in which single- or multiple-event burials, often cremated, were interred along with rich grave goods including copper bracelets, beads, and gorgets, art objects made from mica, novaculite, hematite, banded slate, and other kinds of stone, shell beads and cups, and leaf-shaped "cache blades". This culture is believed to have been core to the Meadowood Interaction Sphere, in which cultures in the Great Lakes region, the St. Lawrence region, the Far Northeast, and the Atlantic region interacted. The large area of interaction is indicated by the presence of Adena-style mounds, the presence of exotic goods from other parts of the interaction spheres, and the participation in the "Early Woodland Burial Complex" defined by William Ritchie Pottery Pottery was widely manufactured and sometimes traded, particularly in the Eastern Interior region. Clay for pottery was typically (mixed with non-clay additives) with grit (crushed rock) or limestone. Pots were usually made in a conoidal or conical jars with rounded shoulders, slightly constricted necks, and flaring rims. Pottery was most often decorated with a variety of linear or paddle stamps that created "dentate" (tooth-like) impressions, wavy line impressions, checked surfaces, or fabric-impressed surfaces, but some pots were incised with geometric patterns or, more rarely, with pictorial imagery such as faces. Pots were coiled and paddled entirely by hand without the use of fast rotation such as a pottery wheel. Some were slipped or brushed with red ochre. Pottery, agriculture, and permanent settlements have often been thought of the three defining characteristics of the Woodland period. However, it has become evident that, in some areas of the United States, prehistoric cultural groups with a clearly Archaic cultural assemblage were making pottery without any evidence of the cultivation of domesticated crops. In fact, it appears that hunting and gathering continued as the basic subsistence and that subsistence horticulture/agriculture did not occur in much of the for a couple of thousand years after the introduction of pottery, and in parts of the Northeast, horticulture was never practiced. This research indicated that a fiber-tempered horizon of ceramics greatly predates 1000 BCE, first appearing about 2500 BCE in parts of with the and in with the . Nevertheless, these early sites were typical Archaic settlements, differing only in the use of basic technology. As such, researchers are now redefining the period to begin with not only pottery, but the appearance of permanent settlements, elaborate burial practices, intensive collection and/or of starchy seed plants (see ), differentiation in social organization, and specialized activities, among other factors. Most of these are evident in the by 1000 BCE. In some areas, like and coastal Georgia, pottery manufacture ceased after c. 700 CE. Subsistence strategies In coastal regions, many settlements were near the coast, often near salt marshes, which were habitats rich in food resources. People tended to settle along rivers and lakes in both coastal and interior regions for maximum access to food resources. Nuts were processed in large amounts, including and s, and many wild berries, including berries, , , and , were eaten, as well as wild s and . Most groups relied heavily on , but a variety of other small and large mammals were hunted also, including , , and . formed an important part of the diet, attested to by numerous shell middens along the coast and interior rivers. Coastal peoples practiced seasonal mobility, moving to the coast during the summer to take advantage of numerous marine resources such as sea mammals and shellfish, then moved to interior locations during the winter where access to deer, bear, and such as salmon could see them through the winter. Seasonal foraging also characterized the strategies of many interior populations, with groups moving strategically among dense resource areas. Recently evidence has accumulated of a greater reliance of woodland peoples on cultivation in this period, at least in some localities, than has historically been recognized. This is especially true for the middle woodland period and perhaps beyond. C. Margaret Scarry states "in the Woodland periods, people diversified their use of plant foods ... they increased their consumption of starchy foods. They did so, however, by cultivating starchy seeds rather than by gathering more acorns." Smith and Yarnell refer to an "indigenous crop complex" as early as 3800 B.P. in parts of the region. Middle Woodland period (200 BCE – 500 CE) The beginning of the Middle Woodland saw a shift of settlement to the Interior. As the Woodland period progressed, local and inter-regional trade of exotic materials greatly increased to the point where a trade network covered most of the . Throughout the Southeast and north of the , s of important people were very elaborate and contained a variety of gifts, many of which were not local. Among the traded materials were copper from the Lake Superior deposits; silver from Lake Superior and especially Ontario; galena from Missouri and Illinois; mica from the southern Appalachians; chert from various places including Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; pipestone from Ohio and Illinois; alligator teeth from the lower Mississippi Valley eastward to Florida; marine shells, especially whelks, from the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts; Knife River chalcedony from North Dakota; and obsidian from Yellowstone in Wyoming. The most archaeologically certifiable sites of burial during this time were in and . These have come to be known as the . Due to the similarity of and burial goods, researchers assume a common body of religious practice and cultural interaction existed throughout the entire region (referred to as the "Hopewellian Interaction Sphere"). Such similarities could also be the result of reciprocal trade, obligations, or both between local clans that controlled specific territories. Access to food or resources outside a clan's territory would be made possible through formal agreements with neighbors. Clan heads would then be buried along with goods received from their trading partners to symbolize the relationships they had established. Under this scenario, permanent settlements would be likely to develop, leading to increased agricultural production and a population increase. Ceramics during this time were thinner and better quality than earlier times. Examples also show pottery also was more decorated than Early Woodland. One style was the Trempealeau phase which could have been seen by the Hopewell in Indiana. This type included a round body, and lines of decoration with cross-etching on rim. The Havana style found in Illinois had a decorated neck. One of the major tools unique to this era was Snyders Points. These were quite large and corner-notched. They were made by soft-hammering percussion, and finished by pressure flaking. Although many of the Middle Woodland cultures are called "Hopewellian", and groups shared ceremonial practices, archeologists have identified the development of distinctly separate cultures during the Middle Woodland period. Examples include the , , , , the , the , the , the , and the . The specializes in Middle Woodland culture. Late Woodland period (500–1000 CE) The late Woodland period was a time of apparent population dispersal, although populations do not appear to have decreased. In most areas construction of burial mounds decreased drastically, as well as long-distance trade in exotic materials. At the same time, bow and arrow technology gradually overtook the use of the spear and , and agricultural production of the " " ( , s, and ) was introduced. While full scale intensive agriculture did not begin until the following Mississippian period, the beginning of serious cultivation greatly supplemented the gathering of plants. Late Woodland settlements became more numerous, but the size of each one (with exceptions) was smaller than their middle Woodland counterparts. The reasons for this are unknown, but it has been theorized that populations increased so much that trade alone could no longer support the communities and some clans resorted to raiding others for resources. Alternatively, the efficiency of bows and arrows in hunting may have decimated the large game animals, forcing the tribes to break apart into smaller clans to better use local resources, thus limiting the trade potential of each group. A third possibility is a colder climate may have affected food yields, possibly affected by , also limiting trade possibilities. Lastly, it may be that agricultural technology became sophisticated enough that crop variation between clans lessened, thereby decreasing the need for trade. As communities became more isolated, they began to develop in their own unique ways, giving rise to small-scale cultures that were distinctive to their regional areas. Examples include the , and s of , the and s of , and the of and . Although the 1000 CE ending of the Late Woodland period is traditional, in practice many regions of the Eastern Woodlands adopted the full much later than that. Some groups in the north and northeast of the current , such as the , retained a way of life that was technologically identical to the Late Woodland until the arrival of Europeans. Furthermore, despite the widespread adoption of the bow and arrow during this time, the peoples of a few areas of the United States appear never to have made the change. During 's travels through the southern United States around 1543, the groups at the mouth of the Mississippi river still preferentially used the spear. Mississippi Culture The Mississippian culture was a civilization that flourished in what is now the , , and from approximately 800 to 1600, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of urban settlements and (suburbs) linked together by loose trading networks. The largest city was , believed to be a major religious center. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Valley (for which it is named). Cultures in the tributary Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540 (when explored the area), with notable exceptions being communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century. Cultural traits , based on a }} }} burial at .}} of fifty-three women}} , , U.S., 1400-1600 CE, 8" (20 cm) high}} A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in the adoption of some or all of these traits. #The construction of large, truncated pyramid mounds, or s. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, , or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds. # -based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with the adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization. # . The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in . #Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the , north to the , south to the , and east to the . #The development of the or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. #The development of institutionalized . #A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. #The beginnings of a , in which one major center (with s) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds. #The adoption of the paraphernalia of the (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from (see ) to the Gulf Coast, and from to and . The SECC was frequently tied into ritual game-playing, as with . The Mississippians had no or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and copper for ritual objects such as and other decorations, but did not smelt iron or practice bronze . Chronology The Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippi period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippi period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. *The Early Mississippi period (c. 1000–1200 CE) had just transitioned from the period way of life (500–1000). Different groups abandoned lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture. Production of surplus corn and attractions of the regional chiefdoms led to rapid population concentrations in major centers. *The Middle Mississippi period (c. 1200–1400) is the apex of the Mississippi era. The expansion of the great metropolis and ceremonial complex at (in present-day Illinois), the formation of other complex s, and the spread and development of SECC art and symbolism are characteristic changes of this period. The Mississippian traits listed above came to be widespread throughout the region. *The Late Mississippi period (c. 1400–1540) is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period (1350–1400), perhaps migrating to other rising political centers. More defensive structures are often seen at sites, and sometimes a decline in mound-building and large-scale, public ceremonialism. Although some areas continued an essentially Middle Mississippian culture until the first significant contact with Europeans, the population of most areas had dispersed or were experiencing severe social stress by 1500. Along with the contemporaneous , these cultural collapses coincide with the global climate change of the . Scholars theorize drought and the reduction of maize agriculture, together with possible deforestation and overhunting by the concentrated populations, forced them to move away from major sites. This period ended with European contact in the 16th century. Regional variations Middle Mississippian site of the Oneota region in an exhibit at the }} , the largest Mississippian culture site}} , showing its platform mounds and encircling palisade}} The term Middle Mississippian is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or s. Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near , was very influential on neighboring societies. High-status artifacts, including and associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists. * : The largest and most complex Mississippian site and the largest Pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico, Cahokia is considered to have been the most influential of the Mississippian culture centers. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working ( ), astronomy ( and the symbolic aligned ), and ( ). * : A chiefdom in southern near . It is thought by some archaeologists that the Late Mississippian developed from the people around 1400 CE and lasted to around 1700 CE. * : A major Mississippian mound center in southern across the from . * : Ranked with Cahokia as one of the two most important sites at the core of the Mississippian culture, located near . * : The for the "Parkin phase", an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province of visited by Hernando de Soto in 1542. South Appalachian Mississippian found at the }} The term South Appalachian Province was originally used by in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s, archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern Mississippian pattern defined in 1937 by the . In 1967 coined 'South Appalachian Mississippian' to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast. South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 CE as compared to 800 CE) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors. Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas. and are prominent examples of the South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. Caddoan Mississippian , in eastern Oklahoma}} The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern , western , northeastern , and northwestern . Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the and related speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern . The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as and the are in the and Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive. The sites generally lacked wooden fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of . The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many . The Caddoan languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and , now spoken mainly by elderly people. Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the , , and , which were all linked by their similar languages. Plaquemine Mississippian The Plaquemine culture was an in the lower Valley in western and eastern . Good examples of this culture are the (the for the culture and period) in , and the , , and sites located in Mississippi. Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the site near , Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the and Peoples. * : A period archaeological site located on the near . The site dates from the period between 1200 and 1730. The platform mound is the second-largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the country, after at Cahokia. * : The main village of the , with three mounds. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times. Known Mississippian settlements Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research. Related modern nations Mississippian peoples were almost certainly ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region in the historic era. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian Culture include: the , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and . Contact with Europeans Scholars have studied the records of 's expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceable. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the and the . De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World. After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed native societies in the Eastern United States. Because the natives lacked to new , such as and , epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to . Political structures collapsed in many places. At , near , Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with colonizers of the expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called . Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States. By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee. Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by in 1894. Notes Category:Empires